11 Perceive and Describe Rhythm and Movement in Works of Art and in the Environment

Aspect of music

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός , rhythmos, "any regular recurring motion, symmetry"^[1]) by and large ways a "move marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different weather".^[2] This general significant of regular recurrence or blueprint in time can utilise to a broad variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to several seconds (as with the riff in a rock music song); to several minutes or hours, or, at the most extreme, even over many years.

Rhythm is related to and distinguished from pulse, meter, and beats:

Rhythm may be divers every bit the way in which one or more than unaccented beats are grouped in relation to an absolute i. ... A rhythmic grouping can exist apprehended only when its elements are distinguished from ane another, rhythm...ever involves an interrelationship betwixt a single, accented (potent) trounce and either i or two unaccented (weak) beats.^[three]

In the performance arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human being calibration; of musical sounds and silences that occur over time, of the steps of a trip the light fantastic, or the meter of spoken linguistic communication and poetry. In some performing arts, such as hip hop music, the rhythmic commitment of the lyrics is 1 of the most important elements of the mode. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as "timed motion through infinite"^[4] and a mutual language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. For example, architects often speak of the rhythm of a edifice, referring to patterns in the spacing of windows, columns, and other elements of the façade.^{[ citation needed ]} In recent years, rhythm and meter take go an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston,^[5] Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff,^[6] Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Jerky,^[7] Godfried Toussaint,^[eight] William Rothstein,^[9] Joel Lester,^[10] and Guerino Mazzola.

Anthropology [edit]

Percussion instruments have clearly defined sounds that assistance the creation and perception of complex rhythms.

In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat.^[eleven] Other enquiry suggests that information technology does not chronicle to the heartbeat straight, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Even so other researchers suggest that since certain features of man music are widespread, it is "reasonable to suspect that crush-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots".^[12] Justin London writes that musical metre "involves our initial perception as well every bit subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time".^[thirteen] The "perception" and "abstraction" of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, equally when we split a series of identical clock-ticks into "tick-tock-tick-tock".^{[14] [15]}

A simple [quadr]duple drum pattern, which lays a foundation of duration common in pop music.

Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution by the forces of natural choice.^[16] Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the heartbeat in the womb, merely only humans have the ability to be engaged (entrained) in rhythmically coordinated vocalizations and other activities. Co-ordinate to Jordania, development of the sense of rhythm was cardinal for the achievement of the specific neurological state of the battle trance, crucial for the evolution of the effective defense organization of early hominids. Rhythmic war cry, rhythmic drumming by shamans, rhythmic drilling of the soldiers and contemporary professional gainsay forces listening to the heavy rhythmic stone music^[17] all utilise the ability of rhythm to unite human individuals into a shared commonage identity where group members put the interests of the grouping above their individual interests and safety.

Some types of parrots tin can know rhythm.^[eighteen] Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation of rhythm all the same posits that man affinity for rhythm is key, so that a person'southward sense of rhythm cannot be lost (east.yard. by stroke). "There is not a unmarried study of an creature beingness trained to tap, peck, or move in synchrony with an auditory beat",^[19] Sacks write, "No uncertainty many pet lovers volition dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lipizzaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not articulate whether they are doing and then or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them."^[20] Human rhythmic arts are possibly to some extent rooted in courting ritual.^[21]

Compound triple drum design: divides three beats into iii; contains repetition on iii levels

The institution of a basic vanquish requires the perception of a regular sequence of singled-out short-duration pulses and, as a subjective perception of loudness is relative to background noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before the next occurs if it is to exist actually distinct. For this reason, the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cantankerous-rhythms of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan.

For data on rhythm in Indian music encounter Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in Persian music, Rhythm in Arabic music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.

Terminology [edit]

Pulse, trounce and measure [edit]

Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with partitioning levels above and multiple levels below.

Every bit a piece of music unfolds, its rhythmic structure is perceived not as a series of discrete independent units strung together in a mechanical, additive, way similar chaplet [or "pulses"], but as an organic process in which smaller rhythmic motives, whole possessing a shape and structure of their own, also part as integral parts of a larger ["architectonic"] rhythmic system.^[22]

Most music, dance and oral poesy establishes and maintains an underlying "metric level", a bones unit of fourth dimension that may exist aural or implied, the pulse or tactus of the mensural level,^{[23] [half-dozen] [24]} or shell level, sometimes but called the beat. This consists of a (repeating) serial of identical nonetheless distinct periodic brusk-duration stimuli perceived as points in time.^[25] The "beat" pulse is not necessarily the fastest or the slowest component of the rhythm but the one that is perceived as fundamental: it has a tempo to which listeners entrain as they tap their foot or dance to a piece of music.^[26] Information technology is currently most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation (meet time signature). Faster levels are division levels, and slower levels are multiple levels.^[25] Maury Yeston clarified "Rhythms of recurrence" ascend from the interaction of two levels of motility, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups.^[27] "Once a metric bureaucracy has been established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long equally minimal testify is present".^[28]

Unit and gesture [edit]

Rhythmic units: division level shown higher up and rhythmic units shown below

A durational blueprint that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhythmic unit. These may be classified every bit:

• Metric – even patterns, such equally steady eighth notes or pulses;
• Intrametric – confirming patterns, such every bit dotted eighth-sixteenth note and swing patterns;
• Contrametric – non-confirming, or syncopated patterns; and
• Extrametric – irregular patterns, such as tuplets.

A rhythmic gesture is any durational blueprint that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit of measurement, does not occupy a menstruation of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described according to its beginning and catastrophe or by the rhythmic units it contains. Rhythms that begin on a strong pulse are thetic, those beginning on a weak pulse are anacrustic and those beginning after a rest or tied-over note are called initial rest. Endings on a strong pulse are strong, on a weak pulse, weak and those that end on a strong or weak upbeat are upbeat.^[29]

Alternation and repetition [edit]

Rhythm is marked past the regulated succession of opposite elements: the dynamics of the potent and weak beat, the played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, or the long and short note. Too as perceiving rhythm humans must be able to conceptualize it. This depends on repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.

The alternation of the strong and weak beat is fundamental to the ancient language of verse, dance and music. The common poetic term "foot" refers, as in trip the light fantastic, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a similar way musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the "on" and "off" shell. These contrasts naturally facilitate a dual hierarchy of rhythm and depend on repeating patterns of duration, accent and balance forming a "pulse-grouping" that corresponds to the poetic human foot. Normally such pulse-groups are defined by taking the near accented beat as the showtime and counting the pulses until the side by side accent.^[30]Scholes 1977b A rhythm that accents another beat out and de-emphasises the downbeat as established or assumed from the melody or from a preceding rhythm is chosen syncopated rhythm.

Unremarkably, fifty-fifty the most complex of meters may be cleaved downward into a concatenation of duple and triple pulses^{[30] [14]} either by addition or partitioning. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four, in western music, are "simply non natural".^[31]

Tempo and duration [edit]

The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a measure of how chop-chop the beat flows. This is often measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm): sixty bpm means a speed of one beat per second, a frequency of i Hz. A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a menstruation equivalent to a pulse or several pulses.^[32] The duration of whatsoever such unit is inversely related to its tempo.

Musical sound may be analyzed on five different fourth dimension scales, which Moravscik has arranged in gild of increasing duration.^[33]

• Supershort: a single cycle of an audible wave, approximately 1⁄thirty – 1⁄10,000 2d (thirty–10,000 Hz or more than i,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived as separate events but as continuous musical pitch.
• Short: of the gild of ane second (1 Hz, 60 bpm, 10–100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is generally specified in the range 40 to 240 beats per minute. A continuous pulse cannot be perceived as a musical beat if it is faster than 8–10 per second (8–x Hz, 480–600 bpm) or slower than 1 per ane.5–ii seconds (0.6–0.5 Hz, 40–xxx bpm). Also fast a shell becomes a drone, too deadening a succession of sounds seems unconnected.^[34] This time frame roughly corresponds to the human heart charge per unit and to the duration of a single step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.
• Medium: ≥ few seconds, this median durational level "defines rhythm in music"^[33] as it allows the definition of a rhythmic unit of measurement, the organisation of an unabridged sequence of accented, unaccented and silent or "residue" pulses into the cells of a measure out that may give rise to the "briefest intelligible and self-existent musical unit",^[15] a motif or effigy. This may exist further organized, by repetition and variation, into a definite phrase that may characterise an entire genre of music, dance or poetry and that may exist regarded as the primal formal unit of music.^[35]
• Long: ≥ many seconds or a infinitesimal, respective to a durational unit that "consists of musical phrases"^[33]—which may make up a melody, a formal department, a poetic stanza or a feature sequence of dance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most elementary levels of musical form.^[36]
• Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.

Curtis Roads^[37] takes a wider view past distinguishing 9-fourth dimension scales, this time in gild of decreasing elapsing. The first two, the infinite and the supra musical, encompass natural periodicities of months, years, decades, centuries, and greater, while the last three, the sample and subsample, which take business relationship of digital and electronic rates "too cursory to be properly recorded or perceived", measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally the infinitesimal or infinitely brief, are once more in the extra-musical domain. Roads' Macro level, encompassing "overall musical compages or form" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik's "very long" partitioning while his Meso level, the level of "divisions of form" including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is likewise similar to Moravcsik's "long" category. Roads' Audio object:^{[38] [ incomplete short citation ] [39] [ incomplete curt citation ]} "a basic unit of musical structure" and a generalization of note (Xenakis' mini structural time scale); fraction of a second to several seconds, and his Microsound (see granular synthesis) down to the threshold of audible perception; thousandths to millionths of seconds, are similarly comparable to Moravcsik'southward "brusque" and "supershort" levels of duration.

Rhythm–tempo interaction [edit]

Ane difficulty in defining rhythm is the dependence of its perception on tempo, and, conversely, the dependence of tempo perception on rhythm. Furthermore, the rhythm–tempo interaction is context dependent, as explained by Andranik Tangian using an example of the leading rhythm of ″Promenade″ from Moussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition:(^{[40] [41]}

This rhythm is perceived as information technology is rather than as the first three events repeated at a double tempo (denoted as R012 = echo from 0, one time, twice faster):

R012

All the same, the motive with this rhythm in the Moussorgsky's piece

is rather perceived equally a repeat

R012

This context-dependent perception of rhythm is explained by the principle of correlative perception, co-ordinate to which data are perceived in the simplest manner. From the viewpoint of Kolmogorov'due south complexity theory, this means such a representation of the data that minimizes the amount of memory.

The example considered suggests two alternative representations of the same rhythm: as it is, and equally the rhythm-tempo interaction – a ii-level representation in terms of a generative rhythmic blueprint and a "tempo curve". Table 1 displays these possibilities both with and without pitch, assuming that one duration requires 1 byte of information, one byte is needed for the pitch of 1 tone, and invoking the repeat algorithm with its parameters R012 takes four bytes. As shown in the bottom row of the table, the rhythm without pitch requires fewer bytes if information technology is "perceived" as it is, without repetitions and tempo leaps. On the contrary, its melodic version requires fewer bytes if the rhythm is "perceived" every bit being repeated at a double tempo.

Complexity of representation of time events

	Rhythm only			Rhythm with pitch
	Complete coding	Coding equally echo		Consummate coding	Coding as echo
		R012			R012
Complexity of rhythmic pattern	6 bytes	3 bytes		12 bytes	6 bytes
Complication of its transformation	0 bytes	4 bytes		0 bytes	4 bytes
Full complexity	6 bytes	7 bytes		12 bytes	10 bytes

Thus, the loop of interdependence of rhythm and tempo is overcome due to the simplicity benchmark, which "optimally" distributes the complexity of perception betwixt rhythm and tempo. In the in a higher place example, the repetition is recognized considering of additional repetition of the melodic contour, which results in a sure redundancy of the musical construction, making the recognition of the rhythmic design "robust" under tempo deviations. Generally speaking, the more redundant the "musical back up" of a rhythmic blueprint, the improve its recognizability under augmentations and diminutions, that is, its distortions are perceived as tempo variations rather than rhythmic changes:

By taking into account melodic context, homogeneity of accompaniment, harmonic pulsation, and other cues, the range of admissible tempo deviations tin can exist extended further, yet still not preventing musically normal perception. For instance, Skrjabin's own performance of his Poem op. 32 no. 1 transcribed from a pianoforte-scroll recording contains tempo deviations within . = 19/119, a span of v.5 times.^[42] Such tempo deviations are strictly prohibited, for example, in Bulgarian or Turkish music based on and so-called additive rhythms with circuitous duration ratios, which can also be explained by the principle of correlativity of perception. If a rhythm is not structurally redundant, then even minor tempo deviations are not perceived as accelerando or ritardando only rather given an impression of a alter in rhythm, which implies an inadequate perception of musical pregnant.^[43]

Metric construction [edit]

Notation of a clave rhythm design: Each prison cell of the grid corresponds to a stock-still duration of time with a resolution fine enough to capture the timing of the pattern, which may exist counted as two confined of four beats in divisive (metrical or symmetrical) rhythm, each beat divided into two cells. The get-go bar of the pattern may likewise usefully be counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm) as 3 + iii + two .

The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech communication is called prosody (come across also: prosody (music)): information technology is a topic in linguistics and poetics, where it ways the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as long or short, accented or unaccented. Music inherited the term "meter or metre" from the terminology of poetry.^{[14] [xv] [44]})

The metric construction of music includes meter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected.^[45] The terminology of western music is notoriously imprecise in this area.^[14] MacPherson preferred to speak of "time" and "rhythmic shape",^[36] Imogen Holst of "measured rhythm".^[46]

Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a feature tempo and measure out. The Purple Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for case, as to be danced in ²
₄ time at approximately 66 beats per infinitesimal. The basic slow step frontwards or backwards, lasting for one beat, is called a "slow", so that a full "right–left" step is equal to one ²
₄ measure.^[47] (Encounter Rhythm and dance.)

Notation of three measures of a clave pattern preceded past 1 measure of steady quarter notes. This pattern is noted in double time relative to the one above, in ane instead of two 4-beat measures.

Four beats followed by three clave patterns

The general classifications of metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and costless rhythm may be distinguished.^[48] Metrical or divisive rhythm, by far the about common in Western music calculates each fourth dimension value as a multiple or fraction of the beat. Normal accents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured rhythm (additive rhythm) also calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of a specified fourth dimension unit but the accents practice not recur regularly within the cycle. Costless rhythm is where there is neither,^[48] such as in Christian dirge, which has a bones pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse.^[15] See Free time (music).

Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric.^[49] Senza misura is an Italian musical term for "without meter", meaning to play without a beat, using time to measure out how long it will take to play the bar.^[50]

Blended rhythm [edit]

A composite rhythm is the durations and patterns (rhythm) produced past amalgamating all sounding parts of a musical texture. In music of the common exercise flow, the composite rhythm normally confirms the meter, ofttimes in metric or even-note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level. White defines composite rhythm as, "the resultant overall rhythmic joint among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture".^[51] This concept was concurrently defined equally "attack betoken rhythm" by Maury Yeston in 1976 every bit "the extreme rhythmic foreground of a composition – the absolute surface of articulated movement".^[52]

African music [edit]

A Griot performs at Diffa, Niger, W Africa. The Griot is playing a Ngoni or Xalam.

In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji (1927–2003) developed a elementary series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand-drum, using six vocal sounds, "Goon, Doon, Go, Do, Pa, Ta", for three basic sounds on the drum, each played with either the left or the right mitt.^{[ citation needed ]} The debate most the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a subject area of particular interest to outsiders while African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the most role, accepted the conventions and limitations of staff notation, and produced transcriptions to inform and enable discussion and debate.^[53]

John Miller^[54] has argued that West African music is based on the tension between rhythms, polyrhythms created past the simultaneous sounding of 2 or more than different rhythms, more often than not i dominant rhythm interacting with ane or more than contained competing rhythms. These frequently oppose or complement each other and the dominant rhythm. Moral values underpin a musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that meet at distant cantankerous-rhythmic intervals and on telephone call-and-response course. Commonage utterances such as proverbs or lineages appear either in phrases translated into "drum talk" or in the words of songs. People expect musicians to stimulate participation by reacting to people dancing. Appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding customs values.^[55]

Indian music [edit]

Indian music has likewise been passed on orally. Tabla players would acquire to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured.

Western music [edit]

In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm. At the same time, modernists such every bit Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat out, leading eventually to the widespread employ of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This utilize may be explained by a annotate of John Muzzle'south where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the apace irresolute pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings.^[56] La Monte Young likewise wrote music in which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Leon Theremin to invent the rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm car, in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the actor piano.

Linguistics [edit]

In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the 3 aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation. Languages tin be categorized co-ordinate to whether they are syllable-timed, mora-timed, or stress-timed. Speakers of syllable-timed languages such every bit Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in contrast, speakers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Standard mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adapted to accommodate the stress timing.

Narmour^[57] describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions that are additive (same elapsing repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-brusk). Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open up-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot business relationship for syncopation and suggests the concept of transformation.^[58]

References [edit]

1. ^ Liddell and Scott 1996.
2. ^ Anon. 1971, 2537.
3. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, vi.
4. ^ Jirousek 1995.
5. ^ Yeston 1976.
6. ^ ^{a b} Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983.
7. ^ Jerky 1997.
8. ^ Toussaint 2005.
9. ^ Rothstein 1989.
10. ^ Lester 1986.
11. ^ Goodall 2006, 0:03:10.
12. ^ Patel 2014, 1.
13. ^ London 2004, 4.
14. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977b.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} Scholes 1977c.
16. ^ Jordania 2011, 99–101.
17. ^ Pieslak 2009,^{[ page needed ]}.
18. ^ Anon. 2009.
19. ^ Patel 2006, cited in Sacks 2007, 239–240
20. ^ Sacks 2007, 239–240.
21. ^ Mithen 2005,^{[ page needed ]}.
22. ^ Cooper and Meyer 1960, ii.
23. ^ Berry 1987, 349.
24. ^ Fitch and Rosenfeld 2007, 44.
25. ^ ^{a b} Winold 1975, 213.
26. ^ Handel 1989.
27. ^ Yeston 1976, fifty–52.
28. ^ Lester 1986, 77.
29. ^ Winold 1975, 239.
30. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, 5.
31. ^ Slatkin n.d., at 5:05.
32. ^ Winold 1975, 237.
33. ^ ^{a b c} Moravcsik 2002, 114.
34. ^ Fraisse 1956^{[ page needed ]}; Woodrow 1951^{[ page needed ]}, both quoted in Covaciu-Pogorilowski n.d.
35. ^ MacPherson 1930,^{[ page needed ]}.
36. ^ ^{a b} MacPherson 1930, iii.
37. ^ Roads 2001.
38. ^ Schaeffer 1959. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1959 (help)
39. ^ Schaeffer 1977. sfn mistake: no target: CITEREFSchaeffer1977 (help)
40. ^ Tanguiane 1993.
41. ^ Tanguiane 1994, pp. 465–502.
42. ^ Skrjabin 1960.
43. ^ Tanguiane 1994, p. 480.
44. ^ Latham 2002.
45. ^ Winold 1975, 209–210.
46. ^ Holst 1963, 17.
47. ^ Majestic Society of Teachers of Dancing 1977,^{[ page needed ]}.
48. ^ ^{a b} Cooper 1973, thirty.
49. ^ Karpinski 2000, 19.
50. ^ Forney and Machlis 2007,^{[ page needed ]}.
51. ^ White 1976, 136.
52. ^ Yeston 1976, 41–42.
53. ^ Agawu 2003, 52.
54. ^ Chernoff 1979.
55. ^ Chernoff 1979,^{[ folio needed ]}.
56. ^ Sandow 2004, 257.
57. ^ Narmour 1977, cited in Winold 1975,^{[ page needed ]}
58. ^ Middleton 1990,^{[ page needed ]}.

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• Narmour, Eugene. Beyond Schenkerism: The Need for Alternatives in Music Analysis. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1977. Phoenix paperback edition 1980. ISBN 978-0-226-56847-8 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-226-56848-5 (paperback).
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006). "Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Human Evolution". Music Perception. Berkeley, California: University of California Printing. 24 (1): 99–104. doi:10.1525/mp.2006.24.1.99. ISSN 0730-7829.
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (25 March 2014). "The Evolutionary Biology of Musical Rhythm: Was Darwin Incorrect?". PLOS Biology. 12 (iii): e1001821. doi:ten.1371/journal.pbio.1001821. PMC3965380. PMID 24667562.
• Pieslak, Jonathan (2009). Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.
• Roads, Curtis (2001). Microsound. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Printing. ISBN 978-0-262-18215-7, 978-0-262-68154-4
• Rothstein, William (1989). Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 9780028721910.
• Sacks, Oliver (2007). "nineteen. Keeping Time: Rhythm and Movement". Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain. New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 233–247. ISBN978-ane-4000-4081-0.
• Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness". In The Pleasance of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology, edited past Arved Mark Ashby, 253–258. ISBN 1-58046-143-3. Reprinted from The Village Phonation (16 March 1982).
• Scholes, Percy (1977b). "Metre", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the tenth ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311306-6.
• Scholes, Percy (1977c). "Rhythm", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Printing. ISBN 0-nineteen-311306-6.
• Slatkin, Leonard. northward.d. "Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin".
• Skrjabin, Alexander (1960). Poem for pianoforte, Op. 32, No. i. Transcribed by P. Lobanov. Moscow: Gosudarstvennoye Muzykalnoye Izdatelstvo.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1993). Bogus Perception and Music Recognition. Lecture Notes in Bogus Intelligence. Vol. 746. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN978-3-540-57394-4.
• Tanguiane, Andranick (1994). "A principle of correlativity of perception and its application to music recognition". Music Perception. 11 (four): 465–502. doi:10.2307/40285634. JSTOR 40285634.
• Toussaint, Godfried T. 2005. "The Geometry of Musical Rhythm". In Proceedings of the Nihon Briefing on Discrete and Computational Geometry, vol. 3742: Lecture Notes in Information science, edited by J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, 198–212. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
• White, John David. (1976). The Analysis of Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Bailiwick of jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
• Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music". In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by Gary Wittlich, 208–269. Englewood Cliffs, New Bailiwick of jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
• Woodrow, Herbert. "Time Perception". In A Handbook of Experimental Psychology, edited by Stanley Smith Stevens,^{[ folio needed ]}. New York: Wiley, 1951.
• Yeston, Maury. 1976. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Oasis and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01884-3.

Farther reading [edit]

• Giger, Peter (1993). Die Kunst des Rhythmus, Schott Music. A theoretical approach to western and not-western rhythms. ISBN 978-iii-7957-1862-half dozen
• Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing". Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory]. 7 (3): 227–232. Archived from the original on 2012-12-08.
• Apprehensive, Grand. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music, MA dissertation, Schoolhouse of Oriental and African Studies, Academy of London.
• Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What information technology is and How to Improve Your Sense of Information technology. San Francisco: RhythmSource Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.
• Mazzola, Guerino (2017). The Topos of Music, Vol. I. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-64364-9.
• Percival, Harold W. (1946). Thinking and Destiny. The Word Foundation. ISBN978-0-911650-06-8.
• Palmer, John (2013). Rhythm to Become, Vision Edition and CE Books. A fast-track collection of graded exercises from elementary to advanced level divided in four sections and including an additional chapter with rhythmic structures used in contemporary music. ISMN 979-0-9002315-one-2
• Petersen, Peter (2013). Music and Rhythm: Fundamentals, History, Assay. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-64393-eight
• Scholes, Percy (1977a). "Form", in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed. (1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-xix-311306-half-dozen.
• Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection—Music), Cambridge Academy Printing; first edition, 2009.
• Van Der, Horst F. (1963). Maat en Ritme, Broekmans & Van Poppel, ISBN 9789491906008. A collection of graded exercises in two volumes, from elementary to avant-garde level.
• Yeston, Maury (Fall 1975). "Rubato and the Middleground". Journal of Music Theory. 19 (ii): 286–301. doi:ten.2307/843592. JSTOR 843592.

External links [edit]

Look up rhythm in Wiktionary, the free lexicon.

• 'Rhythm of Prose', William Morrison Patterson ,Columbia University Printing 1917
• Melodyhound has a "Query by Tapping" search that allows users to identify music based on rhythm
• Louis Hébert, "A Fiddling Semiotics of Rhythm. Elements of Rhythmology", in Signo

fanellitolith.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm

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